ofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 ChineseRitualsforMuslimAncestors SoutheastChina’sLineagesofMuslimDescent /rrcs OdedAbt(欧克德)TheHarryS.TrumanResearchInstitutefortheAdvancementofPeace,HebrewUniversity,EastAsianStudiesDepartment,TelAvivUniversity odedabt@.il Abstract ThispaperexploresuniqueritualtraditionsofdescendantsofSong-YuanMuslimsojournersinSoutheastChina,andthemechanismstheyapplytoshapetheirownidentity.Today,membersofthelineagesexaminedherearenotpracticingMuslims.ThoughtheyresembletheirHanneighborspletely,manystillpreservedistincttraditionsofancestralworship,aimedmemoratingtheirforefathers’foreignorigin.Sofarscholarshavetendedtoaddressmunitiesinethnicterms.Undercurrentgovernmentpolicies,someMuslims’descendantsweregrantedChineseMuslimminority(Hui)status.Therefore,thewidelyeptedapproachinterpretstheiruniquetraditionsasevidencinganaffinitywithIslam.Thepresentpaperoffersanalternativeapproachtotheonefocusedoncontemporaryethnicclassificationbystudyingtheself-perceivedidentityofMuslims’descendantsaspartoftheChineseenvironment.Focusingontheworshipsystemintowhichtheir“Islamic”traitswereincorporated,itdemonstratesthatMuslimfaithhasmarginalsignificanceforestablishingtheiridentity,andthatChinesereligionandcultureactuallyplaythecentralrole. KeywordsdescendantsofMuslims–ancestorworship–identity–Hui–offerings–Fujian *Aconsiderableportionoftheresearchforthispaperwascarriedoutduring2013–2014undertheaegisoftheAreaofExcellenceScheme:TheHistoricalAnthropologyofChineseSociety,thecuhk-sysuCentreforHistoricalAnthropology,ChineseUniversityofHongKong(ChiangChing-kuopost-doctoralprojectnumber:pd016-u-12). ©koninklijkebrillnv,leiden,2015 | doi10.1163/22143955-00202004 ChineseRitualsforMuslimAncestors 217 穆斯林祖先的中国式仪式：中国东南部的穆斯林后裔群体 摘要 该论文探索宋元时期中国东南部穆斯林寄居者后裔的独特传统仪式，以及他们用以塑造自己身份的机制。
现今，该文中研究的家族成员已不再信奉伊斯兰教。
虽然跟他们的汉族邻居几乎完全相似，不过许多成员仍然保存着一些独特的敬奉祖先的传统，目的是为了纪念他们祖先的异族血统。
学者们迄今一般都倾向于用少数民族这个术语来称呼这些社群。
根据目前的政府政策，一些穆斯林后代被归入中国–穆斯林少数民族(回族)身份，也表明了与伊斯兰教的近亲关系，这成为解释他们独特传统的被广泛接受的方式。
该研究提供了一种不同的解释方式，研究他们作为中国环境下的一份子的自我身份认同。
本文集中于具有“伊斯兰”特征的祖先崇拜，以此来表明穆斯林信仰对于建立他们的身份认同仅有边缘意义，而中国宗教与文化实际上发挥着中心作用。
关键词 穆斯林后代，祖先敬奉，身份，回族，祭品，福建 Introduction ThispaperisbasedonanthropologicalandhistoricalresearchintolineagesofdescendantsofMuslimsinthecoastalregionsofSoutheastChina.1ItexaminestheuniqueritualtraditionsthatdevelopedamongthemsincetheearlyMing,andanalyzesthemechanismstheyapplytoshapetheirownidentity. ThemembersofthelineagesexaminedinthisworkarenotpracticingMuslims,butareratherdescendantsofMuslimsojournerswhosettledintheportcityofQuanzhouinFujian,duringtheSong(960–1279)andYuan(1279–1368)dynasties.Sincethefourteenthcentury,manyofthesemerchantsintermarriedwithlocalresidentsandgraduallyassimilatedintotherestoftheHanpopulation.Today,althoughtheyresembletheirHanneighborsinalmost 1ThisworkispartofalargerethnohistoricalprojectmunitiesofMuslimdescentinZhejiang,Fujian,Guangdong,andTaiwanfromthelateYuanperioddowntothepresent. reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 218 Abt everyaspect,manyofthemmemoratetheirforeignoriginand,insomecases,evenclaimadistinctidentity. Withthepoliticalreformsofthelate1970s,profoundchangestookplaceintheofficialpolicyregardingtheidentificationandlabelingofethnicminorities,andthepreferentialrightsgrantedthem.Fromthelate1970s,theChinesegovernmentgrantedminoritieseconomicandpoliticalprivilegesaimedatencouragingtheirintegrationintoChinesesocietyandavoidingseparatistaspirations.Themainpolicysweredeterminedasearlyasthe1950s,butwerevigorouslyimplementedduringDengXiaoping’sreforms(Gladney1995:242–245).2ThesechangesincludedthegrantingofHui回(theMuslimChineseethnicminority)statustoseveralprominentlineagesdescendedfromMuslimsinSoutheastChinaduringthe1980sand1990s.Sincetheearly1950s,observanceofIslamwastheprimaryofficialcriterionforHuiclassification.However,thelineagesexaminedinthisworkobtainedHuistatuswithoutactuallyobservinganyMuslimrulesorcustoms:recognitionwassolelybasedonfamilytraditionsandritualsattestingtotheirMuslimorigin.3SincethentherehasbeenagrowingtendencyamongmembersmunitiesofMuslimdescenttorevealtheirMuslimheritageandnurturetheiruniquefamilytraditionsandritualpractices(Gladney1987;1995:249–254,[1991]1996:261–265;Fan2001;2003;2004;2006;Abt2012;2014b;QuanzhouForeignMaritimeMuseum1983;ChenGuoqiang1990;ChenandChen1993).InexaminingtheircurrenteffortstoemphasizetheiruniqueMuslimheritage,onecannotignoretheweightoftheeconomicandpoliticalfactorslinkedtobelongingtoaminorityinChina.ThebenefitsthatminoritiesreceiveobviouslyconstituteanimportantincentiveforentuatingtheuniqueelementsoftheiridentityandemphasizingMuslim-relatedcustomsandritualpractices(Gladney1987;1995:254–266;[1991]1996:275–276,284–285;Abt2012:326–327;2014b:748–755). 2AspartoftheChinesegovernment’saffirmativeactionpolicies,someminoritymembersareentitledtobenefitssuchasgovernmentinvestmentsininfrastructure,subsidies,variedeconomicbenefitsforbusinesses,increasededucationbudgets,higherpriorityforcollegeadmission,alargerrepresentationinlocalgovernmentthantheiractualproportioninthepopulation,andtherighttohavetwochildrenandsometimesmore. 3TheGuoFamilyofBaiqiwasrecognizedasHuiasearlyas1957sincemembersofsomesubbranchespracticedIslamuntilthe1940s(Fan2003:74,77;2004:10–11),eventhoughthegreatmajoritydidnotmaintainaMuslimlifestyle.Nevertheless,basedonevidencetheypresentedregardingtheirdescentfromMuslimimmigrants,theywererecognizedasHuibytheprcgovernment.Inthe1980stheywerejoinedbyotherlineagesofMuslimdescentfromFujian,Zhejiang,andHainanIsland. reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 ChineseRitualsforMuslimAncestors 219 Amongthesepracticesisancestorworship—acentralelementinthespiritualworldofSoutheastChina’spopulation.Theprevailingbeliefisthatthesoulsofthedeceasedpossesscharacteristicssimilartothoseofthelivingandsharethesameneedsanddesires.Therefore,everypersonisobligedtomakeofferingstohisorherancestorsandtosupplythemwithfoodstuffsandothernecessities,sothattheirsoulswillprotectandensurethewellbeingofthelivingpersonandthatoftheirfamily.4JustliketheirHanneighbors,thedescendantsofMuslimsstrictlyobservetheserulesofworship.Nevertheless,theirritualpracticesfeatureuniquecustomsthatreflectawarenessoftheirancestors’Muslimbeliefs. ordingtoJamesWatson,funeralritualsandancestorworshiphavethroughouthistorybeenmechanismsforstandardizationandculturalassimilationintoChinesesociety.Itwastheuniformperformanceofthatkindofritualthatexpressedtheirbelongingnotonlytotheirowndescentgroup,butalsotothewiderHanculturalsphere(Watson1988:13–14).EvelynRawskimaintainsthatbytheQingperiodthesymbolicsignificanceoffullandcorrectperformanceofritualsbecameincreasinglyimportantasaresultofcontinuingcontactswithforeigncultures.AnyonecouldeChinesebyadoptingChinesecustomsandconduct.Shestatesthat“adoptionofChinesesurnameexogamy,mourningobservances,andcorrectperformanceofritualhadecrucialmarkersofmembershipintheChinesemunity.”CorrectperformanceofritualsthusconstitutedabasicelementinstructuringChineseidentityinthelateImperialperiodandprobablyalsocenturiesearlier(Rawski1988:32–33).Thispaperexaminesthedualroleofancestralritesasbothmechanismsofulturationandmarkersofdistinctidentity. Ipursuedmyresearchbiningananalysisofawiderangeofhistoricaltextswithethnographicfieldwork,oralhistory,anddocumentationofritualpractices,aimedatanalyzingtheinterrelationsbetweenahistoricalheritageandthecontemporaryreligiousandethnicidentityofMuslims’descendants.ThefieldworkextendedoversixseparateperiodsspentinthecoastalregionsofFujian.DuringthosetripsIcollectedwrittenmaterialandvisitedancestralhalls,temples,cemeteries,privatelibraries,andlocalresearchinstitutions,conductinginterviewsandmeetingswithmembersoffamiliesofdescendantsofMuslimsinvillages,townships,andneighborhoodsofQuanzhou.Thefoundationsofthisresearchwerelaidinaninitialfive-weekvisittoQuanzhouandseveraltownsandvillagesinitsvicinityinthesummerof2001.OnthatvisitIwasintroducedtothemajorfamilybranchesoftheDing 4Fordetaileddescriptionsofancestorworship,seeAhern1973:89–244;Doolittle1865:217–235;Freedman1970:163–179;Hsu(1948)1971:167–199;Wolf1974:145–148;Yu1987:378–380. reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 220 Abt 丁,Guo郭,andJin金lineagesinQuanzhou,Chendai陈埭townshipsouthofQuanzhou,andBaiqiHuiEthnicTownship(BaiqiHuizuXiang百崎回族乡).Ireturnedforalongerperiodoffourmonthsduring2002andconductedextensivefieldworkamongtheDinginChendaiandtheGuoinBaiqi.Duringthatperiod,Ifocusedon,amongotheraspects,munitieslivinginthemoreremotevillagesofBaiqi,andinXiamen厦门,Huian惠安,andJinjiang晋江counties,whereIwasintroducedtootherritualpracticesthathavenotbeendiscussedsofarinotherworks.Iconductedadditionalresearchtripstotheregionduringfall2005andspring2007,andmadeafinalvisitoftwoandahalfmonthsin2009. Thepurposeofmyinitialvisitin2001wastolearnfirsthandabouttheritualpracticesindicatingaffinitywithIslamandtocollectmorematerialsregardingtheforeignoriginoftheearlyancestors,suchasaporktabooduringancestralrites,theuseofancientQuranmanuscripts,thepreservationofArabictombstonesandinscriptions,genealogicalevidenceindicatingMuslimorigin,andoraltraditionsregardingtheancestors.AlthoughIuncoveredmanyunknownandfascinatingcasesofuniquefamilytraditions,earlyinmyresearchiturredtomethatananalysisbasedsolelyonsuchalineofinquirymightelicitverylimitedresults. First,theabove-mentionedpracticesexistinvaryingdegreesofelaborateness.Somefamilieshaveonlyscantremnantsormemoriesofuniqueritualtraditions.MyresearchdidnotrevealasignificantMuslimorsyncreticdoctrinalorintellectualdepththatcouldcontributefurthertoachievingnewmeaningfulinsights.Second,IlearnedthatthegreatmajorityofmunitiesofMuslimdescent,Huiandnon-Huialike,donottakeanactivepartinrecoveringandpromotingtheMuslimdimensionoftheirheritage.Whilethespecialritualcustomsdoupyanimportantplaceintheirdailylives,theirfamilyheritage,andtheiridentity,theyperceiveandinterpretthesecustomsindifferentwaysthatcallforothermodelsofexaminationandforaskingdifferentquestions.5 Inmostinstances,theevidenceforaffinitywithIslamwaspublished,written,orrelatedtomepersonallybyinformantsItermhereas“professionalpromoters”or“spokespeople”oftheMuslimheritage.Theymayberoughlydivided 5ItisimportanttonotethattherearegroupsofdescendantsofMuslimswhoarenotrecognizedasHuiatall.TheirapproachtowardstheirMuslimheritageisentirelydifferentinnaturefromthosewhohaverecentlyacquiredHuiidentity.Ihavedescribedatlengthsuchcases,namelyPu蒲familybranchesfromFujianandGuangdong,theSu苏familyinQuanzhou,andtheGuoandDingsub-branchesinLukang,Taiwan(Abt2012:41–42,113–114,264–269,333–335;2014a;2014b). reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 ChineseRitualsforMuslimAncestors 221 intothreecategories.First,thereareaveryfewindividualswho,followingrecentpoliticalchanges,havechosentoadoptIslamandpursueIslamicstudies.ThesecondgroupconsistsofcadresandpartyofficialsfromamongthefamilymemberswhooperateundercurrentgovernmentpoliciesconcerningtheHui’sspecialminorityrightsinordertorepresenttheinterestsoftheirkinsmen.Thethirdcategoryisthatofresearchers,manyofwhomarelocal,includingsomewhoarethemselvesdescendantsofMuslims.TheireffortsaremittedtorecoveringandreconstructingtheMuslimhistoricalbackgroundandtheemergingHuiidentity.6 ThegreatmajorityofthedescendantsofMuslimsIinterviewed,albeitfullyawareofthegrowingimportanceoftheHuiidentitydiscourse,donotsharethesamedegreeofenthusiasmastheirofficialrepresentativesornewlyconvertedlineagemembers.TheyrarelyexpressaspirationstorecovertheirMuslimheritageandarefarmoreactivelyinvolvedinlocalritualactivitiesandinmaintainingthesocialcustomsrelatedtotraditionallineagecohesionsuchasfilialpiety,ancestorveneration,genealogicalrecording,grave-sweeping,festivalofferings,andtempleworship. Thus,mygoalhasbeentoexploretheidentityofMuslims’descendantswithinthelocalsocialandculturalsetting.RatherthanfocusingonlyonthosecharacteristicsthatbearanobviousaffinitytoIslam,IturnedtoexaminethewiderreligiouscontextoftheritualandworshipactivitiesofMuslimdescendants,thusmakingthisstudyequallysignificantforunderstandingthehegemonicHanChineseidentityandcultureintowhichtheMuslimsassimilated. RitualPracticesofMuslims’DescendantsinFujian IntheancestorworshipoftheGuoclanofBaiqiarepreservedmoretraditionsandcustomsattestingtotheirMuslimoriginthaninanyotherfamilyofMuslims’descendantsinFujian.Baiqiisaclusterofvillages(xiang乡)withinHuian惠安CountytotheeastofQuanzhouthat,apartfromthecentralvillagecalledBaiqi,posedoftwelvemorevillages.TheirearliestancestorwasGuoDeguang郭德广(bornbetween1308and1311),aMuslimtrader,probablyofPersianorigin,whomovedtoQuanzhoufromHangzhouintheearly 6ThefollowingisasampleoflocallypublishedworksdealingwiththeMuslimmarkersofmunities:QuanzhouForeignMaritimeMuseum1983;ChenandChen1993;Chen1990;Huang1983:177–199;Guo1990:298–314;Zhuang1993:93–107;ZhongguorenminZhengzhixieshanghuiyi2002. reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 222 Abt fourteenthcentury.In1376,shortlyaftertheMingtakeover,hisgrandsonGuoZhongyuan郭仲远(1348–1422)emigratedfromQuanzhouandbuilthisnewhomeinBaiqivillage,eastofthecity.Atpresent,allGuosinthevicinityarehisdescendants(BaiqiGuoshiHuizuZongpu2000,1:61–62;Chen1984:102–107). ordingtotheGuofamily’sgenealogy,intheearlyseventeenthcentury,“fromtheeighthandninthgenerations[oftheGuosinBaiqi],theytotallyabandonedthe[Muslim]religion,probablyduringthemiddleoftheWanlireignperiod[1573–1620]”(BaiqiGuoshiHuizuZongpu2000:15).7Nevertheless,intheirancestorworshiptheBaiqiGuosstillpreservesomeuniquecustomsindicatingtheirancestors’Muslimidentity.Duringritualsforallancestors,allfamilymembersrefrainfromofferingporkorproductscontainingporkfat.Moreover,theimmediaterelativesofadeceasedpersonabstainfromeatingporkduringthefirstperiodofmourningafterhisdeath.8 TheGuosalsomaintainauniquecustomofQuranofferings.IntwovillagesaroundBaiqi,IwasshownseveralcopiesofoldQuranmanuscriptswritteninArabicatleasttwocenturiesago.9Thesebooksareimportantitemsinancestorworship.SomeofthemarekeptinahouseinDashanvillage,thesiteofthelastmosque,whichexistedinBaiqiuntilthemid-1940s.10ThevillagersIspokewithdidnotknowwhenthebookswerewritten,wereunabletoreadthem,andinfactlackedevenbasicknowledgeoftheircontents.BaiqiinhabitantsnolongerusetheQuranswithintheiroriginalIslamiccontext,butratherduetothebeliefthattheyhadspecialsignificancefortheirforefathers.TheGuoinDashanandneighboringvillagesusetheseQuransinfuneralsandinritualsforthe 7Thequotationisfromanessaytitled“ShiHuiBian”适回辩.SeealsoGuo1990:308–309.SeveralGuohouseholdsmaintainedtheirMuslimbeliefthroughoutthecenturies.Theymainlybelongedtothefourthbranch,residingintheremotevillagesofXiadai下埭,Liandai连埭,Dashan大山,andKePu克圃,whichwererelativelyisolatedfromthecentralsettlementofBaiqiVillage.IntheirancestralworshiptheypreservedmoreuniquecharacteristicsfeaturingaffinitytoIslamthananyotherbranch(Fan2003:71–79;Abt2014b). 8Fieldwork,Baiqi.2002.SimilarreportsarrivedfromZhejiang,Taiwan,andMalysia(ZhongguorenminZhengzhixieshanghuiyi2002;Abt2014b;Ma2005:90–93).Idiscusslaterthetime-segmentsofmourningandtheirsignificance. 9ordingtoChenDasheng(1984:107),themostrecentmanuscriptswerewrittenin1875atthelatest. 10Untilthe1940s,closetotwentyfamilymembers,mainlyfromthefourthbranch,stillhadsomeknowledgeofthebasicprinciplesofIslam.AsmallmosqueinLiandairemainedintactuntil1937.AfterwardsitwasremovedtothesmallervillageofDashanwherealocalahong阿訇(aMuslimChinesetermoriginatingfromthePersianwordforanimamorMuslimclergyman)servedthemunityuntil1946.HeusedtoreciteQuranversesfromamanuscriptcopy.Afterhisdeathin1946,Muslimactivityinthemosquepletely.Evenaftertheterminationofactivityinthemosquethereremainedseveral reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 ChineseRitualsforMuslimAncestors 223 earlyancestors,heldinBaiqi’smainhall.Theyaredisplayedonanaltarbeneaththeancestraltabletsoraportraitofthedeceased(aconceptthattheycall“displayingtheHolyBook,”qingjing请经),togetherwithincensesticksandotherofferings.Atfunerals,theyarecarriedfacingupinthehandsofthefamilymemberwhowalksattheheadofthefuneralprocession(aconceptknownas“bearingtheHolyBookonthepalms,”pengjing捧经).11AlltheinformantsItalkedwithexpressedtheirprideovertheirspecialheritage,thoughtheynotedthatthoseitemsbearnoIslamicsignificanceforthem.Theirforefathers,however,hadinstructedthemtocontinueusingthebooksduringfuneralsandinancestorworship.ThroughoutBaiqiandinothermunitiesabroad,therewereapparentlyothercopiesoftheQuran,someofwhichwerelostordestroyedduringthestormyeventsthaturredaftertheCommunistrevolution,andmostparticularlyduringtheCulturalRevolution.12 AnotherprominentFujianfamilyofMuslimdescentistheDingclanofChendai,numberingapproximately30,000members.TodayitisoneofthelargestandmostnotablefamiliesofMuslimdescentinSoutheastChina.13Theyhavealsopreservedthecustomofrefrainingfromporkofferingsonspecificasions,suchastheceremoniesheldyearlyintheircentralhallinChendaimemoratetheirfoundingancestor,andtheceremoniesheldtwiceayear,inspringandwinter,intheeighthallsfortheheadsofsubbranches.munity’selders,responsibleforritualsheldintwosubbranches’halls,attested: Ourancestorsdidnoteatpork,sowedonotofferthemporkintheritualceremonies.However,porkmaybeservedforthesoulsofrelativesofcloserproximity[membersofrecentgenerations,whoduringtheirlifetime,didplywiththeprohibitionofeatingpork].Inmostcases, elderlypeoplewhomaintainedthecustomofrefrainingfromporkatalltimes.FormoreontheBaiqiGuosandthepartialrevivalofIslamamongsomeofthem,seeFan2003:71–79.11Ding1993:330.SimilarevidenceisreportedfromamongtheGuofamilyinMalaysia(Ma2005:91);Gladney(2004:169)mentionsadifferentphrase:kaijing开经,“theopeningoftheholybook.”12IsawQuransinDashan大山andKePu克圃villages.SeealsoChen1984:107;Gladney(1991)1996:288.13Thefamily’sfoundingancestor,DingJiezhai(丁節齋1251–1298),emigratedinthemidthirteenthcenturyfromSuzhoutoQuanzhoufortradepurposes.DuetoviolentunrestattheendoftheYuanera,hisgreat-grandsonDingRen’an丁仁庵movedtothevillageofChendai(Zhuang1993;1996). reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 224 Abt though,werefrainfromservingthemporkatceremoniesheldduringgeneralholidays.14 TheDingspointtoasectionintheirfamilygenealogyaddressingthepreparationoffoodofferingsforancestors,withinstructionstoservethemdifferentkindsofvegetables,seafood,sheep,andbeef—anunusualcustominFujianwhereporkisthemonmeat:“Ontheanniversaryoftheir[theancestors’]deathsanentireoxmustbeusedinthecourseoftheritualceremony”(Zhuang1996:193;Gladney[1991]1996:270).Inthisuniquefamilycustom,itisnotonlythetraditionofporktaboothatmarksthespecialidentityoftheDingsbutalsothedisregardforthewidelyprevalentcustomofavoidingtheconsumptionofbeefinsouthernChinaduetoitsimportantroleasadraftanimal.Discussingthispracticeduringancienttimes,VincentGoossaerttermsitthe“beeftaboo”(niujie牛戒).HemaintainsthattheriseofthissocialpracticecorrelateswiththeadventofporkasthemajormeatforbothdailyconsumptionandritualusesincetheSongperiod.WhilethepopularityofbeefavoidancegrewconstantlyinthelateImperialperiod,italsobecameamarkerofidentitydifferentiatingbetweenthebulkoftheHanChinesepopulation,andethnicorreligiousgroupsthatwerenotfullyintegratedintolocalsociety.ChineseMuslimswerethosemostidentifiedwiththebeef-eatingcustom(Goossaert2005).Currentlythiscustomislargelyignored,althoughporkisstillconsumedfarmorethanbeef.AtpresenttheChendaiDingsemphasizethepreservationoftheporktaboo,whichresonateswiththeheritageoftheirearlyMuslimancestors.Inthegenealogy,itwastheuseofbeefthatwasemphasized.15SimilarcustomsofancestorworshiparealsopreservedamongtheseveralthousandmembersoftheJin金family,livinginQuanzhou.16Jinfamilymembersproudlynotetheirancestors’highpositionduringthelateYuan,theirforeignMuslimheritage,andtheirnewlyacquiredHui 14Jiangtou江头neighborhood,Chendai,September2002;Gladney(1991)1996:261–274.Apparentlytherearesubstantialdiscrepanciesbetweentheidealortraditionalcustomsandtheiractualimplementation.Thisisespeciallytrueregardingtheworshipconductedinsecondaryhallsorsmallfamilyshrines.Noporktabooisinfactobservedthere.SeealsoSai2001:105–116. 15SaiYukari(2001:107–108)reportsthatbeefhasemoninFujian,althoughlocalrestaurantstendeithertoservethemorepopularporkdishesexclusively,ortofocusonbeef. 16TheJinaredescendantsofaMuslimgeneral,JinJi金吉,whowasemployedbytheYuanMongolrulers.In1333hewasdispatchedtoQuanzhou,wherehejoinedthethrivingmunity.Heandhisson,JinA-li金阿里,soonbecamenotablefiguresamongthecityleaders(QingyuanJinShiZupu1555:30a;Abt2014a:24–32;So2000:125–127). reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 ChineseRitualsforMuslimAncestors 225 status.However,theyhaveadoptedlocalreligiousbeliefsandpracticesovermanygenerationsandcurrentlyfeelnoactualtieswithIslam.17Atthesametime,theveryknowledgeofthefamily’sforeignancestryplaysanimportantroleintheiridentity.Theporktaboo,similartothatupheldbytheDingandtheGuo,isanponentofthisidentity.18 QuiteafewresearchersfromChinaandabroadreferredtothesecustomsandtheirsignificanceintheirstudiesofmunities’Muslimorigins.RoseyWangMareportssimilarfindingsamongabranchoftheBaiqiGuo(pronouncedthereasKoay)inPenang,Malaysia.Herinterpretationwasthat“thevillagepeopleobservedtheseritualsasaninheritedtraditionoftheirclan,andnotasareligiousobligation....Thisage-oldritualisstillpreservedandpracticed,withoutareligiousreason;andthosewhoobserveitdonotaskforanexplanation”(Ma2005:90–93).ThisstatementisindeedtrueregardingMuslimreligion.However,itdoesnottakeintoounttherituals’rolewithinthepracticeofancestralworship,wheretheirsignificanceactuallylies.Ontheonehand,intheviewoftheMuslims’descendants,thesecustomsprovideimportantevidencefortheMuslimoriginofthelineagesinquestion.Nevertheless,asIwilldemonstratelater,thoseseeminglyMuslimcustomswerealsocastintoaritualframeworkthattypicallybelongstomunities’culturallyingrainedhabitus(Bourdieu1984:169–175). EthnicIdentificationandRitualCanonization Sincetheearly1980s,theseancestralrituals,bearingMuslimcharacteristics,haveplayedacentralroleintheofficialHuidefinitionoftheselineages.TheDingsofChendaiarearguablymunityofMuslimdescentwhosemembersweremostactiveinrecoveringtheirancestralheritage.Intheearly1980sahandfulofthetown’seldersfoundedtheJinjiangCountyMuslimAssociation(Jinjiangshiyisilanjiaoxiehui晋江市伊斯兰教协会).Thesefamilymemberswerepartofagroupoffifteenstudents,membersofFujianlineagesofMuslimdescent,whowereintroducedtoIslamduringthelate1930s.TheywereselectedanizedbyrepresentativesoftheAssociation 17OverthecourtyardentranceofoneJinhouseholdIwasshownArabicinscriptions,oneofwhichreads“ablessedMuslimfamily.”However,theinscriptionswereplacedtherein1979byaChineseresearcherofthehistoryofIslaminQuanzhou.Theresidentscannotreadthetexts,andnoneofthefamily’syoungergenerationremembertheirexactcontent. 18Gladney(1991)1996:262,278;fieldworkinQuanzhou,2002,2007. reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 226 Abt forRescuingtheNation(Zhongguohuijiaojiuguoxiehui中国回教救国协会)fromBeijing,inanattempttopromulgateIslamintheregion.In1939theyjoinedaspecialprogramofIslamicstudiesatChengdaNormalSchool(Chengdashifan成达师范),awell-knownschoolofIslamicstudiesinGuilin,GuangxiProvince.UpontheirreturntoChendaisomeofthemattemptedtoinstillIslamicvaluesamongtherestoftheDingbutwhentheCommunistrevolutionbegantheirpletelyceased.19Whenthereformscameintoforceinthe1980s,someveteranmembersdecidedtoresumethepracticeofIslamandtriedtonurtureanewgenerationoflocalMuslims.Oneoftheirfirstactivitieswasanizescholarshipsforaroundtwentystudents,membersoftheDingofChendai,forstudiesinMuslimcentersindifferentcitiesinnorthernandwesternChina.AfewoutstandingstudentswereevensenttostudyinSaudiArabia,Syria,andMalaysia,wheretheystudiedIslamandArabic,alongwithothersubjects.Ontheirreturn,theybecamethemainnucleusofthelocalHuiAssociationandbegancultivatingtheMuslimheritageamongtheDing.TheywerethemembersoftheassociationwhoplannedandestablishedanexhibitionoftheirfamilyheritagedisplayedinChendai’smainancestralhallin1985(Abt2012:106–112;Gladney[1991]1996:285–286;Fan2003:79–80).Intheearly1990stheassociationalsoinitiatedtheestablishmentofanewmosque,adjacenttothehallinChendai,intendedtoservetheDingwhohadreadoptedtheMuslimfaith.In2000,anahongfromGansuProvincewassenttothemosque;togetherwithmembersoftheHuiAssociation,heoversawthereligiousactivityofthetinyChendaimunity.Duringavisitin2001,heshowedmethesmallcollectionofMuslim-Chinesescripturesandantiqueitemsexhibitedintheancestralhall,indicatingtheauthenticMuslimoriginoftheChendaiDings.TheassociationmembersenvisionedtheahongasaspiritualleaderwhowouldhelprevitalizetheMuslimheritageinChendai.Inpractice,theahongachievedveryfewofhisoriginalgoals.Heledweeklyprayersinthemosqueand,asheclaimed,twentytothirtyworshipersjoinedhimeveryFriday.heless,mostwereforeignbusinessmenfromMuslimcountries.20Inthesummerof2002theassociationanizedanIslamandArabicclassinthemosque.Onavisittothesiteduringoneoftheclasses,ImetabouttenstudentsagedtwelveorthirteenfromdifferentvillagesaroundChendai.ThreeyoungstudentswhoreturnedfromSaudiArabiaandSyriawereteachingthemArabicandIslamaswellasEnglishputers.Intheiractivities,theyoung 19InterviewsinChendai,August2002,April2004.SeealsoHuangandGuo2001:14–21;Huang2000:179–181;Fan2003:79–80;Masumi2006:134;Aubin2006:246–255. 20InterviewwithAhongMa马阿訇,Chendai,September2001. reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 ChineseRitualsforMuslimAncestors 227 membersoftheHuiAssociationarespearheadingattemptstoreintroduceIslam.Itseems,however,thattheMuslimactivists’influenceontheirrelativesiscurrentlyratherlimited. Inrecentdecades,localcadresseekingtobenefitfromthespecialminorityrights,ahandfulofnewlyconvertedMuslimactivists,andlocalscholarshavebeenactiveinselecting,highlighting,andtransformingtheirdistinctfamilyritualsintoasemi-officialritualcanondefiningtheirnewlyacquiredethnicidentity.Thisprocesspeakedinthemid-1990swiththeperformanceofnewritualsconductedbytheChendaiDinglineage,inwhichtheaffinitytoIslamwasfurtheremphasized.Thelargestritetookplaceduringthespringof1997,atthetimeoftheTomb-SweepingFestival(Qingming清明),whenworshiparoundthegravesnormallytakesplace.However,thattimewasalsoselectedsinceitcoincidedwiththeMuslimfestivalmarkingtheendoftheRamadanfast(Eidal-Fitr).ThebinedseveralsymbolicmarkersrelatedtotheirMuslimheritagewithgrave-sweeping.Insteadoftheregularofferings,papersheetswithQuranverseswereburned.ThewholeeventwaspresidedoverbyanahongwhorecitedversesfromtheQuran.AlltheparticipantsworewhitecapsandwereencouragedtofastduringtheprecedingRamadanmonth,oratleasttoabstainfromporkduringthatperiod(Gladney1995:259). Inthelate1980sDruGladney([1991]1996:286)summarizedhisfindingsregardingtheresurgenceofIslamwriting:“ThispossiblerevitalizationofanewIslamicidentityfortheHuiinChendaiisimportanttowatchasitesincreasinglyrelevantforthemintheiralteredsocialcontext.”Inalaterarticlefromthemid-1990shefurtherstated,“TheselineageshavealwaysmaintainedaHuiidentitythat,inconjunctionwithrecentevents,onlynowisbeginningtotakeonadecidedlymitment”(Gladney1995:259). IstronglycontesttheassertionthatHuiethnicidentityexistedamongtheselineagespriortothe1980s.AsFanKedemonstrated,upuntilthe1980s,thewidelyprevalentviewamongtheGuoandDingwasthattheyweresimplyHanwhopracticedIslam.Infact,uptotheearly1950s,manyofthemwerenotfamiliaratallwiththetermHuizu(Fan2012:932–945).Moreover,theaforementionedpublicritualsdonotconstitutesufficientevidencefortheexistenceofsuchethnicsentimentsinthepresent.Fromtheperspectiveofadecadelater,ittranspiresthatthesepracticesconcernonlyalimitedcircleofDingmembers,andtheritualshavenotmonpracticeamongtheChendaiDings.ThelastceremonyheldattheirancestralburialgroundinLingshanontheoutskirtsofQuanzhou,in1997,wasasymbolicact,apparentlyperformedonlyonce,ontheasionofaninternationalconferenceattendedbyscholars,officialrepresentativesofMuslimcountries,andguests reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 228 Abt fromDingbranchesoverseas.SincethentheDingshavenotparticipatedinsuchrituals.21 ChineseRitualsforMuslimAncestors Eightyearslater,in2005,thetraditionalQingmingfestivalinChendairemainedthemajorritualmemoratingthelineage’sancestors.TheQingmingritualsincludegatheringaroundtheancestralgraves,makingofferings,cleaningthegraves,andrenewingtheinscriptions.ThefestivalattractsthousandsofDingmembersfromChinaandabroad.TheseritualsareperformedbytheDingswithallthelocalcharacteristics,thoughheretooporkisavoided.IntheritualsIwitnessed,nootherHui-relatedcustomswereincorporated. Severalmonthslater,inthemiddleoftheRamadanmonthinChendai,onlytenMuslimactivistsgatheredinthelocalmosquefortheeveningprayerandmunalmealtobreakthefast.Alloftheresidentsinthevicinityshowedindifferencetowardstheactivitytakingplaceinthemosque.Infact,theaGuanyin’sbirthdaycelebrationsintheneighboringtempleattractedfarmoreattention. AlthoughthedescriptionsofMuslimresurgenceappearrelevantonlytoasmallminorityofSoutheastChina’sMuslimdescendants,thiscertainlydoesnotimplythatrenewedinterestinIslamshouldbelightlydismissed.Despiteitslimitedscope,thephenomenonhasalreadyhadimportantindirecteconomicandsocialeffects.22ThelatestdevelopmentshavealsoledtoagrowinginterestfromChineseandoverseasMuslims.ThefosteringofthehistoricalMaritimeSilkRouteheritageandthenurturingofancientrelicsattestingtotheformerexistenceofaprosperousmunityintheregionhaveattractedtheattentionofbusinessmenanddiplomatsfromtheMiddleEast.Thisinteresthasresultedinflourishingculturalandtouristties,aswellastrade 21AdocumentaryfilmeditedbyChenDashengin1985showsayearlyMuslimpilgrimagetotheancestralgravesintheoutskirtsofQuanzhou.However,theparticipantswereapparentlyMuslimresidentsofQuanzhou,membersoftheAshabmunity,andnottheChendaiDings.ChenDasheng(filmeditor),IslamicCultureinQuanzhou,documentaryproducedunderthedirectionoftheCommitteefortheProtectionofIslamicHistoricRelics,TourismBureauofJinjiangCounty. 22ThecaseofthevillageofXinDianzhen新店镇nearthecityofXiamen,wheretheDingprises74percentofthepopulation,providesagoodexample.TheofficialrecognitionofthevillageasaHuiminoritysettlementin1983transformedthevillagers’livingconditionsandeconomicsituationbeyondrecognition(Abt2012:325–327). reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 ChineseRitualsforMuslimAncestors 229 relationsandfinancialinvestmentsinjointventureswithlocalHuimembersintheQuanzhouregionthathavebroughtsignificanteconomicdevelopmentstothemunities(Gladney[1991]1996:284–285). However,whileaffinitytoIslamhasdrawnthemostscholarlyattention,moststudiessofardonotdiscusstheritualpracticesandspiritualworldofthetensofthousandsofdescendantsofMuslimswhopaylittleattentiontocustomsrelatedtoIslam.Therefore,IturnmyattentiontothesocialandritualinstitutionsthatcoordinateactivitiesthataremorerelevanttomostmembersoffamiliesofMuslimdescent. ForeignAncestorsandLocalGhostsDuringmyfirstvisittotheregionin2001,alocalHuiactivist,amemberofasmallgroupofnewlyconvertedMuslimsoftheChendaiDings,tookmetovisitarecentlyrestoredancestralhalldedicatedtohisearliestancestorsintheneighborhood(formervillage)ofPengtou鹏头inChendai,whereIwasalsopresentedwithapiledspeciallyforthatevent.panion’smainobjectivewastopointoutthephysicalandtextualevidenceattestingtotheMuslimoriginofhisancestors.ItwastheChineseGhostMonth(guijie鬼节)andthestreetswereteemingwithworshipperscarryingofferingstotemplesanddomesticshrines.Thedeafeningsoundoffirecrackerswasheardthroughoutthetownandeverystreetcornerfeaturedtheburningofpaperofferingstohungryghosts. TheGhostFestivalisdedicatedtoredeemingtheentitiesknownasgui鬼,atermthatisoftentranslatedas“hungryspirits”or“ghosts,”andisusedtodescribethesoulsofunknowndeceasedwhoarenotkinmembers.Unlikepeople’sattitudetowardsfamiliarancestors,whoareperceivedasmeritingritualofferingsbecauseoftheirhonoredstatus,attitudestowardsbineaweandcontempt.Theguiarealienstrangersandassucharepotentiallydangerous.Theyarecondemnedtocontinueroamingthisworldrestlessly,sufferinghungerandforcedtoharassthelivingtosupplythemwithfood.Bydoingso,theymaybringdisastertothehomesofthosetheyvisitatrandom.TheGhostFestivalisheldthroughouttheentireseventhmonthofthelunarcalendar.Duringthatperiodthemunityadoptsthehungryspiritsandpresentsfood,drink,andpaperofferingstosatisfytheirneeds.23 23ForanelaboratehistoricalstudyoftheGhostFestivalseeTeiser1988.ForcontemporarypracticesofthefestivalseeWeller1987.FormoregeneraldescriptionsseeDoolittle1865,2:91–106;Wolf1974:169–175,178–179. reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 230 Abt AdjacenttothenewlyrestoredhallinPengtouisashrinetoGuanYin,whereBuddhistnunsconductedritualsandprayedfortheredemptionofsouls.24TheancestralhallitselfwasthefocusofpreparationsfortheGhostFestival,andfamilymemberswerebusyintheinnercourtyardassemblingpaperhouses,lightingincense,andcarryingbasketsoffoodofferingsthatincludedpork.WhenIinquiredaboutit,everyonesaidtheysawnocontradictionbetweentheseactivitiesandthefamily’sMuslimheritage.IwascurioustolearnmoreaboutthereligiousactivitiesthatthemajorityoftheDinglineagememberswereclearlyupiedwith.However,panion,whocontinuedwalkingaheadataquickpacewhileurgingmetofollowhimtothenewlyrestoredhall,onlymutteredthatI“shouldnotpayanyattentiontotheseunimportantsuperstitiouspractices.”Unlikehim,theotherlocalresidentswhoweretakingpartinthefestivitiesweresimultaneouslycooperativeindiscussingtheirMuslimoriginandheritage,aswellaschattingaboutthepreparationstakingplacerightthen,inthehall,towardthemid-month’spudu普度(universalpassage[ofthehungryghostsoutoftherealmofthedead])rituals(Teiser1988:8;Weller1987:42;Cohen1988:191,193). Ihadsimilarencountersduringthefollowingyear’sGhostFestivalheldinKepu克圃villageinBaiqi.ResidentsofthisratherremotevillageproudlydisplayvariouspracticesandphysicalremnantsattestingtotheirMuslimpast(porktabooduringancestralrites,tombstones,andcopiesoftheQuran,asdescribedindetailabove).However,duringmyvisitthevillagewasthrongedwithritualactivitiesrelatedtotheGhostFestival.Outsideeveryhouseinthevillagestoodadecoratedtable,piledwithfoodofferingsforghosts.Iwassurprisedtoseethatthechiefitemsplacedonthetableswerepackagesofdriedporkmeat.Whenaskedabouttheporktaboopracticedinthefamilies’rituals,therespondentsreplieddismissively:“Theyaren’tthesoulsofourancestors,justforeignghosts,sothere’snoproblempresentingthemwithpork.”TheGuoinKepuandtheDinginChendaisharethegeneralpopulation’sattitudetowardthegui.Beingstrangers,theguiaregivenitemsthatcatertotheirdifferentneeds.ArthurWolfreportsthatinTaiwanmanyfamiliesplacecigarettesandbeeralongsidepaperofferings.OneofWolf’sinformantstoldhimthatthisisbecausetheghostsarelikethievesandcriminals:“theyallsmokeanddrink”(Wolf1974:178–179). 24IntheGhostFestivalmunityorfamilyperformsritualsindividually.Inaddition,thefestivalhasaDaoistandaBuddhistversion.IndividualsmunitiesmayalsoenlistthehelpofDaoistorBuddhistclergymentosavetheverysamesouls,onlythistimetheydoitordingtoeitherDaoistorBuddhistconceptsofsalvation.SeeCohen1988:190–194;Teiser1988;Weller1987:90–124. reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 ChineseRitualsforMuslimAncestors 231 Encounterssuchasthosedescribedabovemademerealizethat,byfocusingontheMuslimtraits,notonlywouldmyresearchremainconfinedtotheperspectiveofcontemporaryethnicpolitics,butthatImightalsomissoutoncrucialdetailsrelatedtothewiderreligiousandculturalcontextunderlyingthefamilyritualsofMuslims’descendants. TheMuslimNeighborsofGuanyinTheNangong南宫temple,devotedtoGuanyinandotherlocaldeities,islocatedintheJiangtou江头neighborhoodofChendainexttotwoancestralhallsdedicatedtothefoundersofthelocalDinglineagebranch.ThetemplewasbuiltoverfivehundredyearsagoandisoneofthelargestinChendaitoday.25Itservesthousandsofworshippersfromtheentireregion—membersoftheDingfamilyaswellasmembersofotherfamilieswithnoMuslimroots.Nevertheless,mostofthetemple’sstaff,membersofthemittee,andthemaintempledonorsbelongtotheDinglineage.Allthepeopleservinginthetempleduringmyvisitsbetween2002and2007werealsooftheDinglineage. ExaminingtheactivitytakingplaceintheNangongtemplehelpstoestablishamorepreciseandrealisticviewpointontheplaceIslamupiesinthelivesoftheChendaiDings.Firstofall,itrevealsthedominanceofChinesefolkBuddhismintheirreligiouslife.heless,thetemple’sbeadlesandmastersofceremoniesaredefinitelyawareoftheirfamilies’uniquehistoricalheritage.Itturnedout,furthermore,thatseveraloftheNangongattendantsarethoseinchargeofconductingworshipintheadjacentancestralhalls.Thetemple’smasterpresentedmewithabookofDingfamilyinstructions,permanentlypreservedinthe(Buddhist)temple.Themanuscriptisamanualcontainingpreciseinstructionsforofferingsintheneighboringancestralhalls;theseincludetheporktabooandtherelatedrituals.26 However,theNangongtemple’sritualmasters’interpretationoftheiruniquecustomsdiffersfromthatgivenbytheirfamily’sofficialrepresentativesinthepublicritualsofthe1990s.TheirabstentionfromofferingporkisactuallynotbasedonMuslimreligiousbelief,butratherontheprinciplesharedbyallobserversofChineseancestralworship—satisfyingtheneedsanddesiresofthedead.Inthiscase,thedescendantsassumethattheirancestorswouldnothaverelishedpork. 25ItwasoriginallycalledYinguangsi印光寺(Li2005:129–130;Wang1993).26NangongTemple,2002.Themanual’stitleisChendaiDingshizuJiangtouXiaozongJisi Gongpu陈埭丁世族江头小宗祭祀公谱. reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 232 Abt Thisfitswellwithevidencepresentedinethnographicountsofancestralofferings.IntheconclusiontohisountofhisfieldworkinTaiwanmunitiesofFujianorigin,ontheconceptof“thesoul”(linghun灵魂;“soul”isonlyapartialrenditionofplexChineseterm)inpopularChinesereligion,StevanHarrell(1979:526–527)writes: Itistheling-hunthatgivesapersonhisorherindividuality.Theling-hunofthedeceasedexhibitindividuality,asdothoseoftheliving.Considerthefollowingkindsofevidence...whenofferingsaremadetoindividualancestorsontheirdeath-dayanniversaries,anyonewhorememberstheancestorpersonallywilltrytoincludetheancestor’sfavoritefoodsintheofferings....Ancestorsarenotnecessarilypleasedbystandardofferings,butretainindividualpreferences. Referringtocustomsofofferingstoancestors,ArthurP.Wolf(1974:177)maintainsthat: theintimatenatureoftherelationshipisreflectedintheeffortsmanyfamiliesmaketorespectthepersonaltastesofindividualancestors.Whenanancestorisknowntohavebeenparticularlyfondofcertaindishes,thesemonlyincludedintheofferingsmadeontheanniversaryofhisdeathday.27 TheseseeminglyMuslimcustomswerecastintotheritualframeworkofthewidelyprevalentancestralcult.Eventheperiodsoftimeduringwhichtheyabstainfromeatingporkareactuallybasedontime-periodsthatordingtoChinesebeliefserveasstationsonthesoul’sjourneythroughtheunderworld,fromthemomentofdeathuntilitsreincarnation(abeliefofBuddhistorigin).Tothisday,someMuslims’descendantsmaintaintheporktabooduringthefirstweekofmourning.Someabstainfromporkforforty-ninedays,andinthepastthereweresomewhoobservedthetabooforahundreddays.ordingmonbelief,aweekistheminimalperiodinwhichthesoulcanbereincarnated.Ifinthefirstweekthesouldidnotexitpurgatory,theintermediatephaseimmediatelyfollowingdeath,itthenentersanotherseven-dayphase.Thisprocesscanrepeatitselfseventimes,uptoatotalofsevenweeks(fortyninedays).Theintermediatephaseispaniedbyelaboraterituals,imbuedwithBuddhistelements;duringeachofthesevenweeks,offeringsarepresentedtoaspecificgodthatheadsoneofthesevendifferentcourtsoftheunderworld.Anadditionalofferingritual,foranothergod-judge,takesplace 27SeealsoThompson1988:90;Ahern1973:173. reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 ChineseRitualsforMuslimAncestors 233 onehundreddaysafterdeath(Teiser1993:117–118,121–122).Henceittranspiresthatdespitetheiruniquecharacter,thecontextandtime-frameoftheofferingsmadebyMuslims’descendantsarebasedonfundamentalbeliefsofChinesepopularreligion. Moreover,mentatorssofar,whenreferringtotheMuslims’descendants’porktaboo,haveignoredthefactthatcloserelatives’abstentionfromeatingporkinthefirstdaysofmourningiscustomaryamongthegeneralpopulationofSoutheastChina.Intheinterregnumbetweenthetimeofdeathandthebanquetmarkingtheendofthefuneral,whenthedeceasedisstillmakinghisorherwaythroughtherealmsoftheunderworldpletingafulltransformationintoanancestralspirit,thecloserelativesmustnotconsumeanymeat.InhisworkaboutritualsofdeathandfertilityinTaiwan,StuartThompson(1988:86,96,99)statesthatordingtoaprevalentbelief,“itissaidtobeveryfilialfordescendantstorefrainfromeatingporkpriortoburial....[Toeatpork]wouldbetantamounttodeprivingthedeceasedofurgentlyrequiredreconstitutiveflesh.Thedescendantsabstainsotherewillbeallthemoreforthedeceased.” TheBaiqiGuosstressanotheruniquecustomindicatingtheiraffinitytoIslam.Tomarktheendofthemourningperiod,attheendoftheweektheymakeaspecialritualmealofpork.ThiscustomalsodemonstratestheinfluenceoftraditionalChinesemourningcustomsontheritualsperformedbytheGuos.StuartThompson(1988:90n55,92,96,99)mentionsthesymbolicliftingoftherestrictionondescendantseatingporkatthebanquetheldafterreturningfromthefuneral.Thisactmarksthetransformationofthedeceasedfrom(near-)ghostto(near-)ancestor. AlthoughIfoundnoevidencetosupportthisconjecture,onecanimaginethatupholdingtheporktabooanditsrelatedcustomswasrelativelysimplefordescendantsofMuslims,whowereabletopreservethememoryoftheirforefathers,whiletheritualpracticewouldbeappreciatedbytheirChinesemilieu. ItmaybeassumedthatthiskindofintenseanddeepintegrationintothemunitywastypicalofmunitiesthathadbeenisolatedfromthelargerconcentrationsofMuslimsthatformedalongthelandroutestowardsCentralAsia.RaphaelIsraelimaintainsthatalongsidethemainstreaminstitutionalizedIslaminChina,differentvariationsofmunitiesdeveloped,whichhecalls“munities”or“munities.”munitiesalsoadoptedideologicalaspectsoftheChineseculture,notonlyitsexternalandmaterialfeatures.BeingphysicallyremoteorcutofffromtherestoftheMuslimpopulationinChina,theygraduallystrayedfromtheiroriginsandabandonedtheirreligion(Israeli2002:104–105). TheFujiancasespresentedinthispaperfitwellintothispattern.Thus,itisrevealingtoexamineothermunitiesofMuslimdescentthat reviewofreligionandchinesesociety2(2015)216-240 234 Abt underwentsimilarprocessesofulturation,andthatundercurrentpoliticalandsocialcircumstancesareexperiencingaresurgenceoftheirHuiminzuidentity.ThecaseofthemunityofDragonVillageinNorthwestYunnan,recentlydescribedbyKevinCaffrey,isofparticularinteresttothisstudy.Since1999thevillagerssawtheemergenceofavibrantrevitalizationproject